THE RESPONSIBILITY TO PROTECT (R2P): PROJECT BEAUTY AND THE QUEST FOR GENDER SECURITY OF CHINESE UYGHUR IN XINJIANG
Abstract
Abstract
While discourse on minority prosecution has been on the spotlights for quite some years, gender-based violence towards the Uyghur women has been lacks of addresses in international research and policy responses. The Government of China continual negligence and ‘perceived immunity’ from international sanction had ‘sidelined’ the deliberation of various human-rights norms, including and particularly, the Responsibility to Protect (R2P), resulting various incidents of gender-based violence in the state of Xinjiang. Based on this premise, this paper seeks to address the omission by reconceptualizing gender security in the context of Uyghur women as a double minority who experienced a structural deconstruction of identity and existence as a consequence of the state-led ‘Project Beauty’ initiative. In addition to this, there has been a lack of reference to the terminology of the Responsibility to Protect (R2P) relative to the gender-based violence in general. Therefore, using the context of Uyghur women, this paper aims at investigating the normative force of the Responsibility to Protect (R2P) and to seek whether the neglect of R2P indicative with large-scale human rights violations as displayed against the Uyghur women.
Keywords: Responsibility to Protect (R2P); Gender Security; Human Rights; Uyghur Women
Abstrak
Diskursus mengenai persekusi minoritas yang dilakukan oleh Pemerintah Cina telah menjadi sorotan selama berdekade, namun isu kekerasan berbasis gender terhadap perempuan Uyghur sangat kurang teriset dalam disiplin hubungan internasional dan kebijakan luar negeri. Kelalaian Pemerintah Cina dan 'kekebalan’ nya terhadap sanksi internasional telah mendelegitimasi berbagai norma HAM internasional, khususnya Resonsibility to Protect (R2P) yang menyebabkan terjadinya berbagai insiden kekerasan berbasis gender di negara bagian Xinjiang. Berdasarkan premis tersebut, artikel ini berusaha untuk menelaah gap tersebut dengan merekonseptualisasikan keamanan gender dalam konteks wanita Uyghur sebagai double minority (minoritas ganda) yang mengalami dekonstruksi struktural identitas dan eksistensi sebagai konsekuensi dari inisiatif pemerintah Cina 'Project Beauty'. Selain itu, kurangnya referensi mengenai terminologi Responsibility to Protect (R2P) yang berkaitan dengan kekerasan berbasis gender pada umumnya menjadi sangat penting untuk dikaji. Oleh karena itu, dengan menggunakan konteks perempuan Uyghur, artikel ini bertujuan untuk menyelidiki kekuatan Responsibility to Protect (R2P) dan untuk menelaah dan memvalidasi apakah pengabaian terhadap R2P berkorelasi dengan pelanggaran HAM berskala besar seperti yang ditunjukkan terhadap perempuan Uyghur.
Kata kunci: Responsibility to Protect (R2P); Keamanan Gender; HAM; Perempuan Uyghur
Downloads
References
Alchatib, S. R. (2019). Revisiting the Paradox of Rohingya Refugee Crisis: Hostile Host Countries and Regional Ramification. International Conference on Business and Social Science, 6–22.
Apps, P. (2019). China’s Uyghur detention camps may be the largest mass incarceration since the Holocaust. https://www.newstatesman.com/world/asia/2019/06/china-s-uyghur-detention-camps-may-be-largest-mass-incarceration-holocaust
Asia Pacific Centre for the Responsibility to Protect. (2020). Genocide and crimes against humanity in Xinjiang? Applying the legal tests. https://r2pasiapacific.org/files/5818/applying_legal_tests_xinjiang_nov2020.pdf
Attwood, C. (2010). Uyghur Nationalism and China. E-International Relations, 1–5. http://www.e-ir.info/2010/12/02/uyghur-nationalism-and-china/
Besheer, M. (2021). China Pushes Back Over Scrutiny of Uyghur Rights at UN Event. Voice of America (VOA). https://www.voanews.com/a/east-asia-pacific_voa-news-china_china-pushes-back-over-scrutiny-uyghur-rights-un-event/6205713.html
Bhandari, P. (2020). An introduction to qualitative research. Scribbr. https://www.scribbr.com/methodology/qualitative-research/
Buckley, C. (2018). China Is Detaining Muslims in Vast Numbers. The Goal: ‘Transformation.’ New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2018/09/08/world/asia/china-uighur-muslim-detention-camp.html
China File. (2015). Why China Is Banning Islamic Veils And Why It Won’t Work. https://www.chinafile.com/reporting-opinion/viewpoint/why-china-banning-islamic-veils
Creswell, J. (2013). Qualitative Inquiry and Research Design: Choosing Among Five Approaches. SAGE. https://books.google.co.id/books/about/Qualitative_Inquiry_and_Research_Design.html?id=Ykruxor10cYC&redir_esc=y
Cumming-Bruce, N. (2018, August 10). U.N. Panel Confronts China Over Reports That It Holds a Million Uighurs in Camps. The New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2018/08/10/world/asia/china-xinjiang-un-uighurs.html
Furtun, F. (2010). Turkish-Chinese relations in the shadow of the Uyghur problem. Global Political Trends Center, 2–5.
GCFRP. (2013). The Responsibility to Protect: A Background Briefing. 2–5.
Giglio, D. (2004). Separatism and the War On Terror in China’s Xinjiang Uighur Autonomous Region. 1–27. http://cdn.peaceopstraining.org/theses/giglio.pdf
GlobalR2P. (2021). China: Population at Risk. https://www.globalr2p.org/countries/china/
Henry, M. (2007). Gender, security and development. Routledge Part of the Taylor & Francis Group, 7(1), 61–84. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1080/14678800601176535
Human Rights Watch. (2018). China: Visiting Officials Occupy Homes in Muslim Region: ‘Becoming Family’ Campaign Intensifies Repression in Xinjiang. https://www.hrw.org/news/2018/05/13/china-visiting-officials-occupy-homes-muslim-region
Human Rights Watch. (2021). “Break Their Lineage, Break Their Roots” Chinese Government Crimes against Humanity Targeting Uyghurs and Other Turkic Muslims.
International Service for Human Rights. (2021). China | Uyghur camp survivor reminds UN of duty to urgently start remote reporting. https://ishr.ch/latest-updates/china-uyghur-camp-survivor-reminds-un-of-duty-to-urgently-start-remote-reporting/
Kenderdine, T. (2021, June 7). Chen Quanguo, Architect of Xinjiang Crackdown, Likely to be Rewarded With Central Position in 2022. The Diplomat.
https://thediplomat.com/2021/06/chen-quanguo-architect-of-xinjiang-crackdown-likely-to-be-rewarded-with-central-position-in-2022/
Maizland, L. (2021). China’s Repression of Uyghurs in Xinjiang. https://www.cfr.org/backgrounder/chinas-repression-uyghurs-xinjiang
Marcus, M. B. (2021). Abortion in China: Writer Leta Hong Fincher reflects on abortion, women’s rights, and the resilient feminist movement in China. https://www.thinkglobalhealth.org/article/abortion-china
Millward, J., & Peterson, D. (2020). China’s system of oppression in Xinjiang: how it developed and how to curb it. Cset, September, 1–25. https://www.brookings.edu/research/chinas-system-of-oppression-in-xinjiang-how-it-developed-and-how-to-curb-it/
Moylan, T. (2013). Gender Security as a Category of International Politics. Relations, E-International, 1–6. http://www.e-ir.info/2013/03/12/gender-security-as-a-category-of-international-politics/
Nagib, R. A. M., & Anam, S. (2021). De-extremization Effort through Political Re-education Camps In China. Nation State: Journal of International Studies, 4(1), 51–72. https://doi.org/10.24076/nsjis.v4i1.517
Nichols, M. (2021, May 12). U.S., UK, Germany clash with China at U.N. over Xinjiang. World. https://www.reuters.com/world/us-vows-keep-speaking-out-until-china-stops-genocide-2021-05-12/
Permanent Mission of France to the UN. (2021). Cross-regional joint statement on Xinjiang. https://onu.delegfrance.org/we-call-on-china-to-allow-immediate-meaningful-and-unfettered-access-to
Peters, G., & King, A. (2018). The Communist Party’s Crackdown on Religion in China. Congressional-Executive Commission on China. https://www.cecc.gov/events/hearings/the-communist-party’s-crackdown-on-religion-in-china
Press, A. (2021). Congress passes bill targeting China over Uyghur forced labor. https://www.nbcnews.com/politics/congress/senate-passes-bill-targeting-china-over-uyghur-forced-labor-n1286160
Reinsberg, L. (2020, July 29). China’s Forced Sterilization of Uyghur Women Violates Clear International Law. Just Security. https://www.justsecurity.org/71615/chinas-forced-sterilization-of-uyghur-women-violates-clear-international-law/
SCMP. (2015, May 8). China’s drive to settle new wave of migrants in restive Xinjiang. South China Morning Post. https://www.scmp.com/news/china/society/article/1789160/chinas-drive-settle-new-wave-migrants-restive-xinjiang
Shan, W., & Chen, G. (2009). The Urumqi Riots and China’s Ethnic Policy in Xinjiang. East Asian Policy, 1(3), 14–22. http://www.eai.nus.edu.sg/publications/files/Vol1No3_ShanweiChenGang.pdf
Simonovic, I. (2005). The Responsibility to Protect. United Nations. https://www.un.org/en/chronicle/article/responsibility-protect
The White House. (2021). Bill Signed: H.R. 6256. Statements and Releases. https://www.whitehouse.gov/briefing-room/statements-releases/2021/12/23/bill-signed-h-r-6256/
Tickner, L. S. A. (2011). Feminism and International Relations Conversations about the Past, Present and Future. Routledge: Taylor & Francis Group. https://www.routledge.com/Feminism-and-International-Relations-Conversations-about-the-Past-Present/Tickner-Sjoberg/p/book/9780415584609
Traywick, C. A. (2013). Chinese Officials Ask Muslim Women to Unveil in the Name of Beauty. Foreign Policy. https://foreignpolicy.com/2013/11/26/chinese-officials-ask-muslim-women-to-unveil-in-the-name-of-beauty/
U.S. Mission to the United Nations. (2020). Joint Statement on the Human Rights Situation in Xinjiang and the Recent Developments in Hong Kong, Delivered by Germany on Behalf of 39 Countries. https://usun.usmission.gov/joint-statement-on-the-human-rights-situation-in-xinjiang-and-the-recent-developments-in-hong-kong-delivered-by-germany-on-behalf-of-39-countries/
UHRP. (2021). UHRP Celebrates Historic Uyghur Bill Signed into Law. Press Release. https://uhrp.org/statement/uhrp-celebrates-historic-uyghur-bill-signed-into-law/
UN. (2021). Rights experts concerned about alleged detention, forced labour of Uyghurs in China. Human Rights. https://news.un.org/en/story/2021/03/1088612
UNHCR. (2017). People ’ s Republic of China PT SC. Gene, July, 1–8. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.gene.2017.06.019
United Nations Security Council (UNSC). (2000). UN SC Resolution 1325 (2000) Adopted. S/Res/1325, 1325(October), 4.
UNPO. (2013). East Turkestan: Controversial Beauty Project. https://unpo.org/article/16630
US Congress. (2021). S.65 - Uyghur Forced Labor Prevention Act. US Conressional Research Service. https://www.congress.gov/bill/117th-congress/senate-bill/65
Utami, D. W., & Saleh, R. (2018). Indonesia’s Constitutional Immigration Policy: A Case of Rohingya Ethnic Group Refugees. Journal of Indonesian Social Sciences and Humanities, 8(2), 119–132. https://doi.org/10.14203/jissh.v8i2.84
Wang, M., Richardson, S., Ross, J., Haas, D., & Hepkins, F. (2018). Eradicating Ideological Viruses: China’s Campaign of Repression Against Xinjiang’s Muslims. In Human Rights Watch. https://www.hrw.org/report/2018/09/09/eradicating-ideological-viruses/chinas-campaign-repression-against-xinjiangs
Wong, E. (2009, July 5). Riots in Western China Amid Ethnic Tension. The New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2009/07/06/world/asia/06china.html
Copyright (c) 2022 Indonesian Journal of International Relations
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License.
