THE COVID-19 PANDEMIC EXPLOITED BY EXTREMISTS: A COMPARATIVE STUDY BETWEEN INDONESIA AND GERMANY
Keywords:
covid-19, extremism, Germany, Indonesia, radical narratives
Abstract
This article aims to show that extreme groups, including their sympathizers, delegitimize the government by exploiting radical narratives during the Covid-19 pandemic. Two countries, namely Indonesia and Germany, as examples in a comparative study through qualitative methodology with risk society theory and conspiracy narratives. The results of the study show four findings, namely (1) the resistance response of extreme groups to the government increased during Covid-19; (2) online dissemination of radical narratives is increasing in both Indonesia and Germany; (3) the characteristics of extreme groups and their sympathizers are almost the same in Germany and Indonesia; and (4) the social life of society that coexists with technology is an entry point for extreme groups on social media. In conclusion, in the future, extreme groups and their sympathizers will always optimize their agenda online, because they succeeded in doing so during the implementation of the Covid-19 social restrictions.
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References
Bibliography
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Bavel, Jay J. Van, Katherine Baicker, Paulo S. Boggio, Valerio Capraro, Aleksandra Cichocka, Mina Cikara, Molly J. Crockett, et al. 2020. “Using Social and Behavioural Science to Support COVID-19 Pandemic Response.†Nature Human Behaviour 4 (5): 460–71. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41562-020-0884-z.
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Campion, Kristy, Jamie Ferrill, and Kristy Milligan. 2021. “Extremist Exploitation of the Context Created by COVID-19 and the Implications for Australian Security.†Perspectives on Terrorism 15 (6): 23–40.
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Douglas, Karen M. 2021. “COVID-19 Conspiracy Theories.†Group Processes and Intergroup Relations 24 (2): 270–75. https://doi.org/10.1177/1368430220982068.
Fridiyanto, M. Kholis Amrullah, Muhammad Rafi, and Muhammad Sobri. 2021. “Perilaku Radikalisasi Beragama Masa Pandemi COVID 19 Di Provinsi Jambi.†2021. https://doi.org/10.21043/fikrah.v8i1.
Frischlich, Lena, Jens H. Hellmann, Felix Brinkschulte, Martin Becker, and Mitja D. Back. 2021. “Right-Wing Authoritarianism, Conspiracy Mentality, and Susceptibility to Distorted Alternative News.†Social Influence 16 (1): 24–64. https://doi.org/10.1080/15534510.2021.1966499.
Gensing, Von Patrick, and Rohwedder, Wulf. 2021. “Weidels Zahlenspiele,†2021. https://www.tagesschau.de/faktenfinder/corona-weidel-101.html.
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Gowin, Aleksander. 2022. “Querdenker. New Social Movement under Observation by German Constitutional Protection Authorities in Context of COVID-19 Pandemic.†Przegląd Bezpieczeństwa Wewnętrznego 14 (27): 300–328. https://doi.org/10.4467/20801335PBW.22.060.16951.
Grzesiak-Feldman, Monika. 2013. “The Effect of High-Anxiety Situations on Conspiracy Thinking.†Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-013-9165-6.
Hannan, Abdul. 2022. “Jalan Tengah Konflik Agama Sains Dalam Vaksinasi Covid-19 Perspektif Pemikiran Ian G. Barbour.†http://ejurnal.iainpare.ac.id/index.php/kuriositas.
Heinke, Daniel. 2022. “The Security Threat Posed by the Corona-Skeptic Querdenken Movement in Germany.†https://ctc.westpoint.edu/the-security-threat-posed-by-the-corona-skeptic-querdenken-movement-in-germany/.
Hydrisko, John. 2021. “On Narrative Approaches to Conspiracy Theory.†Honors Theses. 1684. https://egrove.olemiss.edu/hon_thesis/1684.
Käsehage (ed.), Nina. 2021. “Religious Fundamentalism in the Age of Pandemic.â€
Khalik, Subehan. 2021. “CERMINAN LEGITIMASI PEMERINTAHAN ISLAM DI MASA PANDEMI.†https://republika.co.id/berita/qagl8k385/emdeus-abscondem-penguasa-.
Koehler, Daniel. 2014. “The Radical Online: Individual Radicalization Processes and the Role of the Internet.†Institute for the Study of Radical Movements (ISRM).
———. 2021. “Deradicalisation in Germany: Preventing and Countering Violent Extremism.†https://doi.org/10.24241/rcai.2021.128.2.59/en.
Koni, Agung Subayu, Danang Wahyu Muhammad, M. Aufar Saputra Pratama Erawan, and Muhammad Alif Arkan. 2022. “The Response of the Muslim Community in Indonesia When Lockdown Was Re-Implemented The Response of the Muslim Community in Indonesia When Lockdown Was Reimplemented.†https://doi.org/10.21043/fikrah.v8i1.
Lamont, Christoper. 2021. Research Methods in International Relations. SAGE Publication.
Leuker, Christina, Lukas Maximilian Eggeling, Nadine Fleischhut, John Gubernath, Ksenija Gumenik, Shahar Hechtlinger, Anastasia Kozyreva, Larissa Samaan, and Ralph Hertwig. 2022. “Misinformation in Germany During the Covid-19 Pandemic.†European Journal of Health Communication 3 (2): 13–39. https://doi.org/10.47368/ejhc.2022.202.
Lewis, J. 2005. “The Internet and Terrorism. Proceedings of the ASIL Annual Meeting.†Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/doi:10.1017/S0272503700071196.
Miles, M.B, and A.M Huberman. 1994. Qualitative Data Analysis: An Expanded Sourcebook. SAGE Publication.
Muzakki, Akh. 2010. “Ethnic Chinese Muslims in Indonesia: An Unfinished Anti-Discrimination Project.†Journal of Muslim Minority Affairs 30 (1): 81–96. https://doi.org/10.1080/13602001003650630.
Ninawati, Ninawati, Kurnia Setiawan, and Meiske Yunithree Suparman. 2021. “Discrimination Narrative and Chinese Indonesians’ National Identity: Is There Any Correlation?†Proceedings Series on Social Sciences & Humanities 2 (October): 105–10. https://doi.org/10.30595/pssh.v2i.112.
Nurmansyah, Mochamad Iqbal, Sarah Handayani, Deni Wahyudi Kurniawan, Emma Rachmawati, Hidayati, and Ahmad Muttaqin Alim. 2022. “Congregational Worshiping and Implementation of the COVID-19 Preventive Behavioral Measures During the Re-Opening Phase of Worship Places Among Indonesian Muslims.†Journal of Religion and Health. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10943-022-01593-7.
Pratiwi, Fadhila Inas, and Ahalla Tsauro. 2021. “COVID-19: Nationalism and Global Solidarities.†Masyarakat, Kebudayaan Dan Politik 34 (3): 261. https://doi.org/10.20473/mkp.v34i32021.261-271.
Pummerer, Lotte, Robert Böhm, Lau Lilleholt, Kevin Winter, Ingo Zettler, and Kai Sassenberg. 2022. “Conspiracy Theories and Their Societal Effects During the COVID-19 Pandemic.†Social Psychological and Personality Science 13 (1): 49–59. https://doi.org/10.1177/19485506211000217.
Rabb, Marius H. 2013. “Thirty Shades of Truth : Conspiracy Theories as Stories of Individuation, Not of Patholigical Delusion.†Frontiers in Psychology, 4, 406.
Rahayuwati. 2021. “PENOLAKAN VAKSINASI: IMAJINASI MORAL DAN PERAN MEDIA SOSIAL.†Jurnal Humanika Universitas Diponegoro. http://ejournal.undip.ac.id/index.php/humanika.
Rastati, Ranny. 2020. “COVID-19, Konspirasi, Dan Ketahanan Teknososial,†2020. https://pmb.brin.go.id/covid-19-konspirasi-dan-ketahanan-teknososial/.
Rose, Hannah. 2021. “Pandemic Hate: COVID-Related Antisemitism and Islamophobia, and the Role of Social Media Introduction 6.â€
Schemer, Christian, Marc Ziegele, Tanjev Schultz, Oliver Quiring, Nikolaus Jackob, and Ilka Jakobs. 2021. “Political Information Use and Its Relationship to Beliefs in Conspiracy Theories Among the German Public.†Journalism and Mass Communication Quarterly, December. https://doi.org/10.1177/10776990211063527.
Shiddiq, Sugiono. 2022. “POLARISASI SEBAGAI DAMPAK MENGUATNYA KELOMPOK ANTI-VAKSIN COVID -19 DI MEDIA SOSIAL (PERSPEKTIF ECHO CHAMBER).â€
Silke, Andrew. 2020. “Covid-19 and Terrorism: Conspiracy Theory Spin-Offs Flagging the Benefits of CBRN?†https://time.com/5819507/.
Sukamto, Amos, and S Parulian. 2020. “Religious Community Responses to the Public Policy of the Indonesian Government Related to the Covid-19 Pandemic.â€
Tahaj, Reza Al, and Jerry M. Logahan. 2019. “Counter Radicalization Analysis in Efforts to Prevent the Spread of Radical Ideology in Indonesia.†Journal of Strategic and Global Studies 2 (1). https://doi.org/10.7454/jsgs.v2i1.1016.
Walujono, Amanda. 2014. “Ethnic Chinese in Indonesia and Perceptions of Nationality.†http://scholarship.claremont.edu/scripps_theses/508.
Weindling, Paul. 1989. “The ‘Sonderweg’ of German Eugenics: Nationalism and Scientific Internationalism.â€
Williams, Cameron. 2020. “A Study of the United States Influence on German Eugenics.†https://dc.etsu.edu/etd/3781.
Winfield, Ann G. 2018. “Eugenic Ideology and the Institutionalization of the ‘Technofix’ on the Underclass.â€
Yani, Andi Ahmad. 2021. “Policy Review An Examination of Indonesia’s Anti-Terrorism Policy During the Covid 19: The Rise of Digital-Based Terrorism Propaganda Among Youths.†HASANUDDIN JOURNAL OF SOCIAL AND POLITICAL SCIENCES (HJSPS). Vol. 1.
Akmaliah, Wahyudi, and Burhani Ahmad. 2021. “Digital Islam in Indonesia: The Shift of Ritual and Religiosity during Covid-19.†ISEAS Yusof Ishak Institute. https://www.iseas.edu.sg/articles-commentaries/iseas-perspective/2021-107-digital-islam-in-indonesia-the-shift-of-ritual-and-religiosity-during-covid-19-by-wahyudi-akmaliah-and-ahmad-najib-burhani/.
Althof, Andrea. 2018. “Right-Wing Populism and Religion in Germany: Conservative Christians and the Alternative for Germany (AfD).†Springer.
Arianti, V., and Amresh Gunasingham. 2022. “Youth Militancy in Indonesia.†RSIS 14 (2): 1–8. https://doi.org/10.2307/48663620.
Bavel, Jay J. Van, Katherine Baicker, Paulo S. Boggio, Valerio Capraro, Aleksandra Cichocka, Mina Cikara, Molly J. Crockett, et al. 2020. “Using Social and Behavioural Science to Support COVID-19 Pandemic Response.†Nature Human Behaviour 4 (5): 460–71. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41562-020-0884-z.
Beck, Ulrich. 2002. The Terrorist Threat: World Risk Society Revisited. Theory, Culture & Society.
Benhold, Katrin. 2022. “The Emerge in Germany as Far Right and Pandemic Protester Merge,†2022. https://www.nytimes.com/2022/02/28/world/europe/germany-covid-far-right-protests.html.
Bevard, Christopher. 2014. “Fostering Interaction and Building Community in the Technosocial Classroom.†The John Marshall Law School Chicago, Illinois. https://repository.law.uic.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1003&context=whitepapers.
Bloom, Mia. 2020. “How Terrorist Groups Will Try to Capitalize on the Coronavirus Crisis, Just Security.†2020. https://www.justsecurity.org/69508/how-terrorist-groups-will-try-to- capitalize-on-the-coronavirus-crisis/.
Campion, Kristy, Jamie Ferrill, and Kristy Milligan. 2021. “Extremist Exploitation of the Context Created by COVID-19 and the Implications for Australian Security.†Perspectives on Terrorism 15 (6): 23–40.
Candra, Marli, and Nada Fitriyah Alifiana. 2021. “POLARISASI BERITA BOHONG COVID-19 : VIKTIMISASI KOLEKTIF.†LITIGASI, no. 2 (October). https://doi.org/10.23969/litigasi.v22i2.4057.
Choironi, M. Alvin Nur. 2021. “Religion and Narration of Covid-19 on Social Media: A Study on Dapur Narasi Social Movement.†DINIKA : Academic Journal of Islamic Studies 6 (2): 213–34. https://doi.org/10.22515/dinika.v6i2.4093.
Dongen, Teun Van, and Eviane Leidig. 2021. “Whose Side Are They on? The Diversity of Far-Right Responses to Covid-19.†ICCT.
Douglas, Karen M. 2021. “COVID-19 Conspiracy Theories.†Group Processes and Intergroup Relations 24 (2): 270–75. https://doi.org/10.1177/1368430220982068.
Fridiyanto, M. Kholis Amrullah, Muhammad Rafi, and Muhammad Sobri. 2021. “Perilaku Radikalisasi Beragama Masa Pandemi COVID 19 Di Provinsi Jambi.†2021. https://doi.org/10.21043/fikrah.v8i1.
Frischlich, Lena, Jens H. Hellmann, Felix Brinkschulte, Martin Becker, and Mitja D. Back. 2021. “Right-Wing Authoritarianism, Conspiracy Mentality, and Susceptibility to Distorted Alternative News.†Social Influence 16 (1): 24–64. https://doi.org/10.1080/15534510.2021.1966499.
Gensing, Von Patrick, and Rohwedder, Wulf. 2021. “Weidels Zahlenspiele,†2021. https://www.tagesschau.de/faktenfinder/corona-weidel-101.html.
Germani, Federico, and Nikola Biller-Andorno. 2021. “The Anti-Vaccination Infodemic on Social Media: A Behavioral Analysis.â€
Gowin, Aleksander. 2022. “Querdenker. New Social Movement under Observation by German Constitutional Protection Authorities in Context of COVID-19 Pandemic.†Przegląd Bezpieczeństwa Wewnętrznego 14 (27): 300–328. https://doi.org/10.4467/20801335PBW.22.060.16951.
Grzesiak-Feldman, Monika. 2013. “The Effect of High-Anxiety Situations on Conspiracy Thinking.†Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-013-9165-6.
Hannan, Abdul. 2022. “Jalan Tengah Konflik Agama Sains Dalam Vaksinasi Covid-19 Perspektif Pemikiran Ian G. Barbour.†http://ejurnal.iainpare.ac.id/index.php/kuriositas.
Heinke, Daniel. 2022. “The Security Threat Posed by the Corona-Skeptic Querdenken Movement in Germany.†https://ctc.westpoint.edu/the-security-threat-posed-by-the-corona-skeptic-querdenken-movement-in-germany/.
Hydrisko, John. 2021. “On Narrative Approaches to Conspiracy Theory.†Honors Theses. 1684. https://egrove.olemiss.edu/hon_thesis/1684.
Käsehage (ed.), Nina. 2021. “Religious Fundamentalism in the Age of Pandemic.â€
Khalik, Subehan. 2021. “CERMINAN LEGITIMASI PEMERINTAHAN ISLAM DI MASA PANDEMI.†https://republika.co.id/berita/qagl8k385/emdeus-abscondem-penguasa-.
Koehler, Daniel. 2014. “The Radical Online: Individual Radicalization Processes and the Role of the Internet.†Institute for the Study of Radical Movements (ISRM).
———. 2021. “Deradicalisation in Germany: Preventing and Countering Violent Extremism.†https://doi.org/10.24241/rcai.2021.128.2.59/en.
Koni, Agung Subayu, Danang Wahyu Muhammad, M. Aufar Saputra Pratama Erawan, and Muhammad Alif Arkan. 2022. “The Response of the Muslim Community in Indonesia When Lockdown Was Re-Implemented The Response of the Muslim Community in Indonesia When Lockdown Was Reimplemented.†https://doi.org/10.21043/fikrah.v8i1.
Lamont, Christoper. 2021. Research Methods in International Relations. SAGE Publication.
Leuker, Christina, Lukas Maximilian Eggeling, Nadine Fleischhut, John Gubernath, Ksenija Gumenik, Shahar Hechtlinger, Anastasia Kozyreva, Larissa Samaan, and Ralph Hertwig. 2022. “Misinformation in Germany During the Covid-19 Pandemic.†European Journal of Health Communication 3 (2): 13–39. https://doi.org/10.47368/ejhc.2022.202.
Lewis, J. 2005. “The Internet and Terrorism. Proceedings of the ASIL Annual Meeting.†Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/doi:10.1017/S0272503700071196.
Miles, M.B, and A.M Huberman. 1994. Qualitative Data Analysis: An Expanded Sourcebook. SAGE Publication.
Muzakki, Akh. 2010. “Ethnic Chinese Muslims in Indonesia: An Unfinished Anti-Discrimination Project.†Journal of Muslim Minority Affairs 30 (1): 81–96. https://doi.org/10.1080/13602001003650630.
Ninawati, Ninawati, Kurnia Setiawan, and Meiske Yunithree Suparman. 2021. “Discrimination Narrative and Chinese Indonesians’ National Identity: Is There Any Correlation?†Proceedings Series on Social Sciences & Humanities 2 (October): 105–10. https://doi.org/10.30595/pssh.v2i.112.
Nurmansyah, Mochamad Iqbal, Sarah Handayani, Deni Wahyudi Kurniawan, Emma Rachmawati, Hidayati, and Ahmad Muttaqin Alim. 2022. “Congregational Worshiping and Implementation of the COVID-19 Preventive Behavioral Measures During the Re-Opening Phase of Worship Places Among Indonesian Muslims.†Journal of Religion and Health. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10943-022-01593-7.
Pratiwi, Fadhila Inas, and Ahalla Tsauro. 2021. “COVID-19: Nationalism and Global Solidarities.†Masyarakat, Kebudayaan Dan Politik 34 (3): 261. https://doi.org/10.20473/mkp.v34i32021.261-271.
Pummerer, Lotte, Robert Böhm, Lau Lilleholt, Kevin Winter, Ingo Zettler, and Kai Sassenberg. 2022. “Conspiracy Theories and Their Societal Effects During the COVID-19 Pandemic.†Social Psychological and Personality Science 13 (1): 49–59. https://doi.org/10.1177/19485506211000217.
Rabb, Marius H. 2013. “Thirty Shades of Truth : Conspiracy Theories as Stories of Individuation, Not of Patholigical Delusion.†Frontiers in Psychology, 4, 406.
Rahayuwati. 2021. “PENOLAKAN VAKSINASI: IMAJINASI MORAL DAN PERAN MEDIA SOSIAL.†Jurnal Humanika Universitas Diponegoro. http://ejournal.undip.ac.id/index.php/humanika.
Rastati, Ranny. 2020. “COVID-19, Konspirasi, Dan Ketahanan Teknososial,†2020. https://pmb.brin.go.id/covid-19-konspirasi-dan-ketahanan-teknososial/.
Rose, Hannah. 2021. “Pandemic Hate: COVID-Related Antisemitism and Islamophobia, and the Role of Social Media Introduction 6.â€
Schemer, Christian, Marc Ziegele, Tanjev Schultz, Oliver Quiring, Nikolaus Jackob, and Ilka Jakobs. 2021. “Political Information Use and Its Relationship to Beliefs in Conspiracy Theories Among the German Public.†Journalism and Mass Communication Quarterly, December. https://doi.org/10.1177/10776990211063527.
Shiddiq, Sugiono. 2022. “POLARISASI SEBAGAI DAMPAK MENGUATNYA KELOMPOK ANTI-VAKSIN COVID -19 DI MEDIA SOSIAL (PERSPEKTIF ECHO CHAMBER).â€
Silke, Andrew. 2020. “Covid-19 and Terrorism: Conspiracy Theory Spin-Offs Flagging the Benefits of CBRN?†https://time.com/5819507/.
Sukamto, Amos, and S Parulian. 2020. “Religious Community Responses to the Public Policy of the Indonesian Government Related to the Covid-19 Pandemic.â€
Tahaj, Reza Al, and Jerry M. Logahan. 2019. “Counter Radicalization Analysis in Efforts to Prevent the Spread of Radical Ideology in Indonesia.†Journal of Strategic and Global Studies 2 (1). https://doi.org/10.7454/jsgs.v2i1.1016.
Walujono, Amanda. 2014. “Ethnic Chinese in Indonesia and Perceptions of Nationality.†http://scholarship.claremont.edu/scripps_theses/508.
Weindling, Paul. 1989. “The ‘Sonderweg’ of German Eugenics: Nationalism and Scientific Internationalism.â€
Williams, Cameron. 2020. “A Study of the United States Influence on German Eugenics.†https://dc.etsu.edu/etd/3781.
Winfield, Ann G. 2018. “Eugenic Ideology and the Institutionalization of the ‘Technofix’ on the Underclass.â€
Yani, Andi Ahmad. 2021. “Policy Review An Examination of Indonesia’s Anti-Terrorism Policy During the Covid 19: The Rise of Digital-Based Terrorism Propaganda Among Youths.†HASANUDDIN JOURNAL OF SOCIAL AND POLITICAL SCIENCES (HJSPS). Vol. 1.
Published
2023-08-21
How to Cite
Praditya, Y. (2023). THE COVID-19 PANDEMIC EXPLOITED BY EXTREMISTS: A COMPARATIVE STUDY BETWEEN INDONESIA AND GERMANY. Indonesian Journal of International Relations, 7(2), 339-357. https://doi.org/10.32787/ijir.v7i2.464
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