ASEAN'S PREPAREDNESS AND RESPONSE AGAINST HYBRID THREAT IN CYBERSPACE
Keywords:
ASEAN, China, cyber threat, hybrid threat, regional security
Abstract
This research examines ASEAN's readiness and response to threats in cyberspace. ASEAN is a region with growing internet users and a thriving economy. Unfortunately, ASEAN's cyber defense is considered low. This research uses the concept of hybrid threats by Hoffman which states that future conflicts/war create hybrid strategies, where conventional and non-conventional means are brought together to see the vulnerability. Using a descriptive study using primary and secondary data in the form of official documents, journal articles, news, and internet sources. This article found that China's rise in the cyber field, as well as the attack activities it has carried out both directly and indirectly, provide a strong threat perception for the ASEAN region. For this reason, this article concludes that ASEAN must intensify collaboration within the region and with global partners while also establishing a comprehensive cyber defense strategy, including a potential for a cyber army across the region.
Downloads
Download data is not yet available.
References
Abdurrohim, M. (2022). ASEAN Digital Masterplan: Responding Cyber Security Dilemma in The Post-Covid Era. Global Focus, 2(1), 17-26. doi: https://doi.org/10.21776/ub.jgf.2022.002.01.2
Agustiyan, D. R., Mamahit, D. A., & Suwarno, P. (2022). Sea Lines of Communications (SLOC): Complexity of China's 21st Century Maritime Silk Road Threats. International Journal of Arts and Social Science, 5(2).
Anshori, M. F., & Ramadhan, R. A. (2019). Kepentingan Singapura pada Keamanan Siber di Asia Tenggara dalam Singapore International Cyber Week. Padjadjaran Journal of International Relations, 1(1), 39. DOI : https://doi.org/10.24198/padjir.v1i1.21591
Aoi, C., Futamura, M., & Patalano, A. (2019). Introduction ‘hybrid warfare in Asia: its meaning and shape.’ The Pacific Review, 31(6), 693–713. https://doi.org/10.1080/09512748.2018.1513548
Bajak, F., & Kang, D. (2024, February 22). An online dump of Chinese hacking documents offers a rare window into pervasive state surveillance. AP News. https://apnews.com/article/china-cybersecurity-leak-document-dump-spying-aac38c75f268b72910a94881ccbb77cb
Ball, J. (2023, April 15). The Changing Face of Conflict: What is Hybrid Warfare?. Global Security Review. https://globalsecurityreview.com/hybrid-and-non-linear-warfare-systematically-erases-the-divide-between-war-peace/
Borelli, M. (2017). ASEAN Counter-terrorism Weaknesses. Counter Terrorist Trends and Analyses, 9(9), 14–20. http://www.jstor.org/stable/26351552
Burgess, M. (2023, February 28). China Is Relentlessly Hacking Its Neighbors. WIRED. https://www.wired.com/story/china-hack-emails-asean-southeast-asia/
Cheng, J.H., & Chow, M. (2023, November 6). Strengthening Cyber Resilience in Southeast Asia. Fulcrum. https://fulcrum.sg/strengthening-cyber-resilience-in-southeast-asia/
Curtis, H., Hogeveen, B., Kang, J., Le Thu, H., Rajagopalan, R. P., & Ray, T. (2022). Digital Southeast Asia. Australian Strategic Policy Institute. https://www.orfonline.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/02/Digital-Southeast-Asia.pdf
CyberSecurity Malaysia. (2020). Cyber Security Outlook in South East Asia Region From Cyber Security Malaysia’s Perspective. Ministry of Digital Malaysia. https://www.cybersecurity.my/data/content_files/26/2149.pdf
Digital Watch Observatory. (2023, April 27). Kaspersky: Online attacks against SEA businesses up 45% in 2022. Geneva Internet Platform. https://dig.watch/updates/kaspersky-online-attacks-against-sea-businesses-up-45-in-2022
Farwell, J. P., & Rohozinski, R. (2011). Stuxnet and the Future of Cyber War. Survival, 53(1), 23–40. https://doi.org/10.1080/00396338.2011.555586
Ginanjar, Y. (2022). STRATEGI INDONESIA MEMBENTUK CYBER SECURITY DALAM MENGHADAPI ANCAMAN CYBER CRIME MELALUI BADAN SIBER DAN SANDI NEGARA. Dinamika Global : Jurnal Ilmu Hubungan Internasional, 7(02), 295-316. https://doi.org/10.36859/jdg.v7i02.1187
Greig, J. (2024, June 5). Chinese hacking groups stole ‘sensitive’ intel on South China Sea from SE Asian government. The Record. https://therecord.media/chinese-hacking-groups-stole-from-se-asia
Gundur, R. V., Levi, M., Topalli, V., Ouellet, M., Stolyarova, M., Chang, L. Y.-C., & DomÃnguez MejÃa, D. (2021). Evaluating Criminal Transactional Methods in Cyberspace as Understood in an International Context. CrimRxiv. https://doi.org/10.21428/cb6ab371.5f335e6f
Gunneriusson, H., & Ottis, R. (2013). Cyberspace from the Hsybrid Threat Perspective. Journal of Information Warfare, 12(3), 67–77. https://www.jstor.org/stable/26486843
Hoffman, F. G. (2007). Conflict in the 21st century: The rise of hybrid wars (p. 51). Arlington, VA: Potomac Institute for Policy Studies. https://www.comw.org/qdr/fulltext/0712hoffman.pdf
Hoffman, F. G. (2009). Hybrid threats: Reconceptualizing the evolving character of modern conflict (Vol. 220). Washington, DC: Institute for National Strategic Studies, National Defense University. https://apps.dtic.mil/sti/tr/pdf/ADA496471.pdf
Iasiello, E. (2016). China’s Three Warfares Strategy Mitigates Fallout From Cyber Espionage Activities. Journal of Strategic Security, 9(2), 45–69. http://www.jstor.org/stable/26466776
Interpol. (2021). ASEAN CYBERTHREAT ASSESSMENT 2021: KEY CYBERTHREAT TRENDS OUTLOOK FROM THE ASEAN CYBERCRIME OPERATIONS DESK. International Criminal Police Organization. https://www.interpol.int/content/download/16106/file/ASEAN%20Cyberthreat%20Assessment%202021%20-%20final.pdf
Kelliher, F. (2024, March 1). China data leak spotlights cyber-spying across Southeast Asia. Nikkei Asia. https://asia.nikkei.com/Politics/International-relations/China-data-leak-spotlights-cyber-spying-across-Southeast-Asia
Kello, L. (2013). The Meaning of the Cyber Revolution: Perils to Theory and Statecraft. International Security, 38(2), 7–40. http://www.jstor.org/stable/24480929
Klimburg, A. (2011). Mobilising Cyber Power. Survival, 53(1), 41–60. https://doi.org/10.1080/00396338.2011.555595
Knowles, C. (2024, January 5). Rising cyber threats challenge Southeast Asia's booming digital economy. Security Brief: Asia. https://securitybrief.asia/story/rising-cyber-threats-challenge-southeast-asia-s-booming-digital-economy#:~:text=Rising%20cyber%20threats%20challenge%20Southeast%20Asia's%20booming%20digital%20economy,-Fri%2C%205th%20Jan&text=According%20to%20recent%20research%20by,by%20the%20end%20of%202023.
Krisman, K. (2013). A Secure Connection: Finding the Form of ASEAN Cyber Security Cooperation. JAS (Journal of ASEAN Studies), 1(1), 41-53. DOI: https://doi.org/10.21512/jas.v1i1.60
Miller, B. (2021). Is technology value-neutral?. Science, Technology, & Human Values, 46(1), 53-80. https://doi.org/10.1177/0162243919900965
Noor, E. (2020). Positioning ASEAN in Cyberspace. Asia Policy, 15(2), 107–114. https://www.jstor.org/stable/27023907
Nye, J. S. (2016). Deterrence and Dissuasion in Cyberspace. International Security, 41(3), 44–71. https://www.jstor.org/stable/26777790
Permata, I. M., & Nanda, B. J. (2019, September). The Securitization of Cyber Issue in ASEAN. In PROCEEDING OF THE 1ST INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON ASEAN (IC-ASEAN) (p. 90). https://d-nb.info/1254811931/34#page=100
Read, O. (2013). How the 2010 attack on Google changed the US government’s threat perception of economic cyber espionage. In Cyberspace and International Relations: Theory, Prospects and Challenges (pp. 203-230). Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer Berlin Heidelberg.
Reilly III, R. L. (2020). Strategic Competition and Escalation Management in the 21st Century: Russian Hybrid Warfare and China’s Rise (Master's thesis, University of Denver). https://digitalcommons.du.edu/etd/1829/
Saalman, L. (2021). China and its hybrid warfare spectrum. In M. Weissmann , N. Nilsson , B. Palmertz & P. Thunholm (Authors), Hybrid Warfare: Security and Asymmetric Conflict in International Relations (pp. 95–112). London: I.B. Tauris. Retrieved June 29, 2024, from http://dx.doi.org/10.5040/9781788317795.0013
Setiawan, R. (2018). Indonesia Cyber Security: Urgency To Establish Cyber Army In The Middle Of Global Terrorist Threat. Journal of Islamic World and Politics, 2(1), 157-173. DOI: https://doi.org/10.18196/jiwp.2109
T-Systems. (2023, March 9). Asia remains the epicenter of advanced persistent threats. Are you ready to take them on? https://www.t-systems.com/id/en/insights/newsroom/news/asia-remains-the-epicenter-of-advanced-persistent-threats-583682
Talat, D. (2021, January 8). Hybrid Threats & Warfare in South Asia. Modern Diplomacy. https://moderndiplomacy.eu/2021/01/08/hybrid-threats-warfare-in-south-asia/
Veljovski, G., Taneski, N., & Dojchinovski, M. (2017). The danger of “hybrid warfare†from a sophisticated adversary: the Russian “hybridity†in the Ukrainian conflict. Defense & Security Analysis, 33(4), 292-307. https://doi.org/10.1080/14751798.2017.1377883
Weissmann, M. (2019). Hybrid warfare and hybrid threats today and tomorrow: towards an analytical framework. Journal on Baltic Security, 5(1), 17-26. https://doi.org/10.2478/jobs-2019-0002
Agustiyan, D. R., Mamahit, D. A., & Suwarno, P. (2022). Sea Lines of Communications (SLOC): Complexity of China's 21st Century Maritime Silk Road Threats. International Journal of Arts and Social Science, 5(2).
Anshori, M. F., & Ramadhan, R. A. (2019). Kepentingan Singapura pada Keamanan Siber di Asia Tenggara dalam Singapore International Cyber Week. Padjadjaran Journal of International Relations, 1(1), 39. DOI : https://doi.org/10.24198/padjir.v1i1.21591
Aoi, C., Futamura, M., & Patalano, A. (2019). Introduction ‘hybrid warfare in Asia: its meaning and shape.’ The Pacific Review, 31(6), 693–713. https://doi.org/10.1080/09512748.2018.1513548
Bajak, F., & Kang, D. (2024, February 22). An online dump of Chinese hacking documents offers a rare window into pervasive state surveillance. AP News. https://apnews.com/article/china-cybersecurity-leak-document-dump-spying-aac38c75f268b72910a94881ccbb77cb
Ball, J. (2023, April 15). The Changing Face of Conflict: What is Hybrid Warfare?. Global Security Review. https://globalsecurityreview.com/hybrid-and-non-linear-warfare-systematically-erases-the-divide-between-war-peace/
Borelli, M. (2017). ASEAN Counter-terrorism Weaknesses. Counter Terrorist Trends and Analyses, 9(9), 14–20. http://www.jstor.org/stable/26351552
Burgess, M. (2023, February 28). China Is Relentlessly Hacking Its Neighbors. WIRED. https://www.wired.com/story/china-hack-emails-asean-southeast-asia/
Cheng, J.H., & Chow, M. (2023, November 6). Strengthening Cyber Resilience in Southeast Asia. Fulcrum. https://fulcrum.sg/strengthening-cyber-resilience-in-southeast-asia/
Curtis, H., Hogeveen, B., Kang, J., Le Thu, H., Rajagopalan, R. P., & Ray, T. (2022). Digital Southeast Asia. Australian Strategic Policy Institute. https://www.orfonline.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/02/Digital-Southeast-Asia.pdf
CyberSecurity Malaysia. (2020). Cyber Security Outlook in South East Asia Region From Cyber Security Malaysia’s Perspective. Ministry of Digital Malaysia. https://www.cybersecurity.my/data/content_files/26/2149.pdf
Digital Watch Observatory. (2023, April 27). Kaspersky: Online attacks against SEA businesses up 45% in 2022. Geneva Internet Platform. https://dig.watch/updates/kaspersky-online-attacks-against-sea-businesses-up-45-in-2022
Farwell, J. P., & Rohozinski, R. (2011). Stuxnet and the Future of Cyber War. Survival, 53(1), 23–40. https://doi.org/10.1080/00396338.2011.555586
Ginanjar, Y. (2022). STRATEGI INDONESIA MEMBENTUK CYBER SECURITY DALAM MENGHADAPI ANCAMAN CYBER CRIME MELALUI BADAN SIBER DAN SANDI NEGARA. Dinamika Global : Jurnal Ilmu Hubungan Internasional, 7(02), 295-316. https://doi.org/10.36859/jdg.v7i02.1187
Greig, J. (2024, June 5). Chinese hacking groups stole ‘sensitive’ intel on South China Sea from SE Asian government. The Record. https://therecord.media/chinese-hacking-groups-stole-from-se-asia
Gundur, R. V., Levi, M., Topalli, V., Ouellet, M., Stolyarova, M., Chang, L. Y.-C., & DomÃnguez MejÃa, D. (2021). Evaluating Criminal Transactional Methods in Cyberspace as Understood in an International Context. CrimRxiv. https://doi.org/10.21428/cb6ab371.5f335e6f
Gunneriusson, H., & Ottis, R. (2013). Cyberspace from the Hsybrid Threat Perspective. Journal of Information Warfare, 12(3), 67–77. https://www.jstor.org/stable/26486843
Hoffman, F. G. (2007). Conflict in the 21st century: The rise of hybrid wars (p. 51). Arlington, VA: Potomac Institute for Policy Studies. https://www.comw.org/qdr/fulltext/0712hoffman.pdf
Hoffman, F. G. (2009). Hybrid threats: Reconceptualizing the evolving character of modern conflict (Vol. 220). Washington, DC: Institute for National Strategic Studies, National Defense University. https://apps.dtic.mil/sti/tr/pdf/ADA496471.pdf
Iasiello, E. (2016). China’s Three Warfares Strategy Mitigates Fallout From Cyber Espionage Activities. Journal of Strategic Security, 9(2), 45–69. http://www.jstor.org/stable/26466776
Interpol. (2021). ASEAN CYBERTHREAT ASSESSMENT 2021: KEY CYBERTHREAT TRENDS OUTLOOK FROM THE ASEAN CYBERCRIME OPERATIONS DESK. International Criminal Police Organization. https://www.interpol.int/content/download/16106/file/ASEAN%20Cyberthreat%20Assessment%202021%20-%20final.pdf
Kelliher, F. (2024, March 1). China data leak spotlights cyber-spying across Southeast Asia. Nikkei Asia. https://asia.nikkei.com/Politics/International-relations/China-data-leak-spotlights-cyber-spying-across-Southeast-Asia
Kello, L. (2013). The Meaning of the Cyber Revolution: Perils to Theory and Statecraft. International Security, 38(2), 7–40. http://www.jstor.org/stable/24480929
Klimburg, A. (2011). Mobilising Cyber Power. Survival, 53(1), 41–60. https://doi.org/10.1080/00396338.2011.555595
Knowles, C. (2024, January 5). Rising cyber threats challenge Southeast Asia's booming digital economy. Security Brief: Asia. https://securitybrief.asia/story/rising-cyber-threats-challenge-southeast-asia-s-booming-digital-economy#:~:text=Rising%20cyber%20threats%20challenge%20Southeast%20Asia's%20booming%20digital%20economy,-Fri%2C%205th%20Jan&text=According%20to%20recent%20research%20by,by%20the%20end%20of%202023.
Krisman, K. (2013). A Secure Connection: Finding the Form of ASEAN Cyber Security Cooperation. JAS (Journal of ASEAN Studies), 1(1), 41-53. DOI: https://doi.org/10.21512/jas.v1i1.60
Miller, B. (2021). Is technology value-neutral?. Science, Technology, & Human Values, 46(1), 53-80. https://doi.org/10.1177/0162243919900965
Noor, E. (2020). Positioning ASEAN in Cyberspace. Asia Policy, 15(2), 107–114. https://www.jstor.org/stable/27023907
Nye, J. S. (2016). Deterrence and Dissuasion in Cyberspace. International Security, 41(3), 44–71. https://www.jstor.org/stable/26777790
Permata, I. M., & Nanda, B. J. (2019, September). The Securitization of Cyber Issue in ASEAN. In PROCEEDING OF THE 1ST INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON ASEAN (IC-ASEAN) (p. 90). https://d-nb.info/1254811931/34#page=100
Read, O. (2013). How the 2010 attack on Google changed the US government’s threat perception of economic cyber espionage. In Cyberspace and International Relations: Theory, Prospects and Challenges (pp. 203-230). Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer Berlin Heidelberg.
Reilly III, R. L. (2020). Strategic Competition and Escalation Management in the 21st Century: Russian Hybrid Warfare and China’s Rise (Master's thesis, University of Denver). https://digitalcommons.du.edu/etd/1829/
Saalman, L. (2021). China and its hybrid warfare spectrum. In M. Weissmann , N. Nilsson , B. Palmertz & P. Thunholm (Authors), Hybrid Warfare: Security and Asymmetric Conflict in International Relations (pp. 95–112). London: I.B. Tauris. Retrieved June 29, 2024, from http://dx.doi.org/10.5040/9781788317795.0013
Setiawan, R. (2018). Indonesia Cyber Security: Urgency To Establish Cyber Army In The Middle Of Global Terrorist Threat. Journal of Islamic World and Politics, 2(1), 157-173. DOI: https://doi.org/10.18196/jiwp.2109
T-Systems. (2023, March 9). Asia remains the epicenter of advanced persistent threats. Are you ready to take them on? https://www.t-systems.com/id/en/insights/newsroom/news/asia-remains-the-epicenter-of-advanced-persistent-threats-583682
Talat, D. (2021, January 8). Hybrid Threats & Warfare in South Asia. Modern Diplomacy. https://moderndiplomacy.eu/2021/01/08/hybrid-threats-warfare-in-south-asia/
Veljovski, G., Taneski, N., & Dojchinovski, M. (2017). The danger of “hybrid warfare†from a sophisticated adversary: the Russian “hybridity†in the Ukrainian conflict. Defense & Security Analysis, 33(4), 292-307. https://doi.org/10.1080/14751798.2017.1377883
Weissmann, M. (2019). Hybrid warfare and hybrid threats today and tomorrow: towards an analytical framework. Journal on Baltic Security, 5(1), 17-26. https://doi.org/10.2478/jobs-2019-0002
Published
2024-08-12
How to Cite
Gultom, Y. S. M. (2024). ASEAN’S PREPAREDNESS AND RESPONSE AGAINST HYBRID THREAT IN CYBERSPACE. Indonesian Journal of International Relations, 8(2), 414-432. https://doi.org/10.32787/ijir.v8i2.590
Section
Articles
Copyright (c) 2024 Indonesian Journal of International Relations
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License.
